Myrmeleontidae, commonly known as “antlions”, are the most diverse family of the insect order Neuroptera, with over 1700 described species (in 191 genera) of which 37 species (in 21 genera) have so far been studied in respect to standard karyotypes. In the present paper we provide first data on the occurrence of the “insect-type” telomeric repeat (TTAGG)_n and location of 18S rDNA clusters in the antlion karyotypes studied using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). We show that males of Palpares libelluloides (Linnaeus, 1764) (Palparinae), Acanthaclisis occitanica (Villers, 1789) (Acanthaclisinae) and Distoleon tetragrammicus (Fabricius, 1798) (Nemoleontinae) have rDNA clusters on a large bivalent, two last species having an additional rDNA cluster on one of the sex chromosomes, most probably the X. (TTAGG)_n - containing telomeres are clearly characteristic of P. libelluloides and A. occitanica; the presence of this telomeric motif in D. tetragrammicus is questionable. In addition, we detected the presence of the (TTAGG)_n telomeric repeat in Libelloides macaronius (Scopoli, 1763) from the family Ascalaphidae (owlflies), a sister group to the Myrmeleontidae. We presume that the “insect” motif (TTAGG)_n was present in a common ancestor of the families Ascalaphidae and Myrmeleontidae within the neuropteran suborder Myrmeleontiformia.

TTAGG, rDNA, fluorescence in situ hybridization, Palpares libelluloides , Acanthaclisis occitanica , Distoleon tetragrammicus , Libelloides macaronius , Myrmeleontidae , Ascalaphidae , Neuroptera

The ends of eukaryotic chromosomes are capped with complex nucleoprotein structures, the telomeres, which preclude fusion, recombination and degradation of the chromosome ends and thus maintain the genome integrity. In a large number of organisms, telomeric DNA consists of highly repetitive short sequences. Although telomeres are diversified in their DNA sequence composition in different eukaryotic groups, several phylogenetic lineages demonstrate highly conserved motifs. In animals, three main types of telomeric repeats are known: TTAGGG, TTAGGC, and TTAGG. Motif (TTAGGG)_n prevails in the multicellular animals, except roundworms and arthropods, and is probably ancestral for all Metazoa; motif (TTAGGC)_n is characteristic of nematodes; motif (TTAGG)_n, which is a derivative of (TTAGGG)_n, occurs in all arthropod groups (sea spiders, chelicerates, myriapods, crustaceans, and hexapods), supporting their origin from a common ancestor (Traut et al. 2007, Gomes et al. 2010). The (TTAGG)_n telomeric motif is commonly found among different higher insect taxa, and this telomere structure is supposed to be phylogenetically ancestral in the class Insecta in general (Frydrychová et al. 2004). However, the insect-type consensus telomeric sequence is known to be lost independently during insect evolution (Frydrychová et al. 2004, Lukhtanov and Kuznetsova 2010, Gokhman et al. 2014). Further on, the loss and subsequent gain of typical telomeres may occur repeatedly as it has been indicated in Coleoptera (Frydrychová and Marec 2002) and recently in Heteroptera (Pita et al. 2016). However, it is worth noting that the number of species with known telomere structure is extremely low in each insect order, including Neuroptera (Frydrychová et al. 2004).

Neuroptera, also known as Planipennia, are a highly heterogeneous insect order, with 5803 species described in 16 families (Oswald 2016). In this group, telomere structure has so far been described in only two species, Protidricerus japonicus (McLachlan, 1891) from the family Ascalaphidae (Okazaki et al. 1993) and Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens, 1836) from the family Chrysopidae (Frydrychová et al. 2004). The former species was found to have the insect-type telomeric motif (TTAGG)_n, whereas the latter species was reported to lack this motif. Considering the heterogeneity in the presence of the TTAGG telomeric repeats discovered in Neuroptera, it thus could be interesting to verify the presence of this motif in other members of the order.

Within Neuroptera, the family Myrmeleontidae, commonly known as “antlions”, due to the fiercely predatory habits of their larvae, is the most diverse group having worldwide distribution. This family is considered monophyletic, with over 1700 extant species in 191 genera. In Myrmeleontidae, as many as 12 subfamilies, among them Palparinae, Pseudimarinae, Stilbopteryginae, Dimarinae, Echthromyrmicinae, Dendroleontinae, Nemoleontinae, Glenurinae, Myrmecaelurinae, Acanthaclisinae, Brachynemurinae, and Myrmeleontinae (Krivokhatsky 2011), but most commonly only three, Stilbopteryginae, Palparinae and Myrmeleontinae (Stange 2004, Badano et al. 2016), are recognized. Myrmeleontidae, together with the families Psychopsidae, Nemopteridae, Nymphidae and Ascalaphidae, form the monophyletic suborder Myrmeleontiformia (= the superfamily Myrmeleontoidea) that is a derived lineage of Neuroptera diversified in the Jurassic period (Badano et al. 2016). Different phylogenetic analyses based on morphological and genetic data established a sister-group relationship between Myrmeleontidae and Ascalaphidae (Badano et al. 2016). Ascalaphidae, or owlflies, are a smaller family, with about 430 described species in 100 genera distributed in all the biogeographic regions (Tjeder 1992). The family is subdivided into two main subfamilies, Haplogleniinae and Ascalaphinae (Henry 1978).

Until now, the cytogenetic studies in the Myrmeleontidae have been carried out on 37 species from 21 genera, and were focused exclusively on the basic features of the karyotypes such as chromosome numbers and sex determination systems (reviewed in Kuznetsova et al. 2015).

The aim of the present study is to further characterize chromosomes of antlions and to study their evolution by exploring the telomere structure and chromosomal location of the major ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The FISH technique was applied for the first time in the family Myrmeleontidae.

We examined the presence/absence of TTAGG telomeric repeats and location of the rDNA clusters in Palpares libelluloides (Linnaeus, 1764), Distoleon tetragrammicus (Fabricius, 1798) and Acanthaclisis occitanica (Villers, 1789) from the family Myrmeleontidae. In addition, we studied telomere structure in Libelloides macaronius (Scopoli, 1763) belonging to the sister family Ascalaphidae.

In male P. libelluloides, we found 12 autosomal bivalents and X and Y univalent chromosomes (Fig. 1), confirming the chromosome number, 2n = 26 (24 + XY), reported by Kuznetsova et al. (2015). FISH with “insect” telomeric probe (TTAGG)_n produced strong hybridization signals on the chromosome ends at metaphase I (Figs 2, 3) and other stages of meiosis (not shown). Some differences in hybridization intensity could be seen among different bivalents and between homologous telomeres. The rDNA probe detected 18S rDNA clusters on a large pair of autosomes (Figs 2, 3).

Figures 1–10.

Different stages of spermatogenesis in antlion species Palpares libelluloides (1–3), Acanthaclisis occitanica (4), Distoleon tetragrammicus (5–8) and owlfly species Libelloides macaronius (9–10) after standard staining (1) and FISH with the 18S rDNA and telomeric (TTAGG)_n probes (2–10). 1–3 MI, n = 12 + X + Y 4 diakinesis/MI transition, n = 8 + X + Y 5, 6 MI, n = 7 + X + Y 7 pachytene 8 spermatids 9 mitotic metaphase 10 spermatids. Asterisks mark sex chromosomes; red signals identify the (TTAGG)_n - positive telomeres (arrowed); green signals identify rDNA clusters. Scale bar on Fig. 2 also applies to Figs 3–10.

In male A. occitanica, we found 8 bivalents of various sizes and the X and Y univalent chromosomes, suggesting 2n = 18 (16 + XY). This species is cytogenetically studied for the first time. Its karyotype includes one exceptionally large pair of bi-armed autosomes, another pair of large bi-armed autosomes and the two sex chromosomes, with the longer metacentric chromosome presumably being the X, while the other metacentric chromosome − the Y; the detailed morphology of other chromosomes remained unknown. The majority of bivalents and sex chromosomes displayed strong signals of the telomere probe. As for the heterogeneity for presence/absence and intensity of the (TTAGG)_n signals, it could be explained by technical artifacts. Apart from a few scattered signals, the ribosomal probe detected a considerable accumulation of the 18S rDNA sequence on the second large pair of bi-armed autosomes and, additionally, on the putative X chromosome (Fig. 4).

In male D. tetragrammicus, we found 7 autosomal bivalents and X and Y univalent chromosomes (Figs 5, 6). An additional univalent, most likely a B-chromosome, which precociously segregates together with one of the sex chromosomes, was occasionally observed in first metaphase nuclei (not shown). The data obtained suggest a diploid karyotype of 2n = 16 (14 + XY) in contrast to 2n = 18 (16 + XY) reported by Kuznetsova et al. (2015). FISH with (TTAGG)_n probe has detected no hybridization signals in the first metaphase nuclei (Fig. 5). However, weak and scarce (TTAGG)_n hybridization signals of uncertain location could be seen in separate chromosomes of different stages as well as in the spermatids (Figs 6–8). The rDNA probe revealed 18S rDNA clusters both on a large pair of autosomes (possibly the third pair), and one of the sex chromosomes (Figs 5, 6).

In male L. macaronius, the karyotype remained unknown. However the (TTAGG)_n -positive signals could be clearly observed in some cells including spermatids (Figs 9, 10).

Our study contributes to the current knowledge of cytogenetics of the neuropteran family Myrmeleontidae. The principal outcomes of this study are: (1) the discovery of one or two major rDNA clusters per haploid karyotype; the clusters are located either only on a pair of autosomes in a particular species or, additionally, on one of the sex chromosomes in another two studied species and (2) the discovery of the insect-type (TTAGG)_n telomeric sequence at least in two of the three studied species. Because the (TTAGG)_n sequence is likewise found in the two studied owlfly species, we suggest that this telomere structure was inherent in the last common ancestor of the phylogenetic lineage Myrmeleontidae + Ascalaphidae.

The complete financial support for this study was provided by the grant from the Russian Science Foundation no. 14-14-00541 to the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences. We thank Dr. E.V. Ilyina (Dagestan Scientific Center RAS, Makhachkala) for help in collection and Dr. V.A. Krivokhatsky (Zoological Institute RAS, St. Petersburg) for help in identification of species, studied in the present paper.